
E LITTLE CLASSIC SERIES.il 


American 
Railway 
Systems § 


4 FLANAGAN COMPANY 




























































































































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2719 Aesop’s Fables. 

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2726 Favorite Mother Goose Jingles. 

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2723 Whitter and His Snow-Bound. 

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2738 Stories from Grimm. 

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2709 Our Three Little Sisters and Hia¬ 

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2740 The Story of Peter Rabbit. 

2710 Stories About Animals. 

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2823 Stories About Birds. 

2712 The Tale of Bunny Cottontail— 

Abridged. 

2825 Who Stole the Bird’s Nest, and 

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2826 The Robin Redbreast Book. 

2812 The Toyland of Santa Claus. 

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2829 Escape at Bedtime, and Other 

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2830 My Ship and I, and Other Poems. 


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NOV-4 72 






AMERICAN RAILWAY SYSTEMS 


By W. L. Rocheleau 
Copyright, 1922, A. Flanagan Company 

EARLY HISTORY 

A railway journey in a first-class coach or a palace 
car is of such common occurrence that we seldom 
think of the time when there were no railroads, or 
how the people of today, who live in regions so far 
from a railroad that they are deprived of its use, 
travel from one place to another. Although the 
railroad is so common, it has not been known for 
a very long time in its present form. In fact, at 
the beginning of the twentieth century there were 
men still living who were born before there was a 
steam railroad in the United States, and this pat¬ 
tern of road was introduced in England where it 
originated, only a few years before it found its 
way to our own country. 

This does not mean, however, that no attempt had 
been previously made to construct tracks over which 
carriages could be hauled to greater advantage than 
on ordinary roads, and some of these roadways are 
of such ancient date that we do not know when 
they were built. The old Romans, who, in their 
time were the best builders that the world had 
known, made use of roads which were built of stone; 
and the famous orator, Wendell Phillips, used to 
tell us in his lecture, 44 The Lost Arts,” that the 
ancient Egyptians used a sort of railway upon which 
to haul the huge blocks of stone used in building 
1 




the pyramids and their magnificent temples. Only 
small, detached portions of the roadways con¬ 
structed by the Romans and Egyptians have been 
found, so that we know but little of their extent, 
and practically nothing of their mode of operation. 
They stand today as silent witnesses of the genius 
of a distant past, and while they may have some 
interest as objects of curiosity, we must leave them 
for the more important study of the railroads of 
the present day. 

The modern railway had its beginning in England, 
and originated in a road constructed for hauling 
wagons from a coal mine. At first it was merely an 
improvement on the common wagon road. Cross 
pieces called ties were laid on the road bed and tim¬ 
bers which served as rails were'spiked to them. The 
ties were covered with earth or gravel, to give the 
horse a good path upon which to walk. This sort 
of railway was in use in the coal mines in New 
Castle-upon-the-Tyne in England as early as 1672. 
The advantages over the common road were so great 
that other mines adopted the device and these coal 
roads became known as tramways. 

Wooden rails were used for about forty years be¬ 
fore iron rails were substituted. It was found that 
with iron rails a horse could haul four times as 
much as he could upon an ordinary road, and within 
a few years these tramways were perfected to such 
an extent that .the load was increased until a horse 
could draw forty times as much upon them as upon 
the common road. The first iron rails bore little 
resemblance to those now in use, but they are of 


interest because they show liow great enterprises 
may grow from small beginnings. The rails were 
made of cast »iron, and were only five feet long. 
They were spiked to the timbers which before their 
introduction had served as rails. The rail had a 
raised lip on the outer edge to keep the carriage on 
the track. 

Some of the mines opening upon the hill sides 
placed pulleys in the mine, over which ropes passed, 
each end of the rope being attached to a car. By 
this arrangement the loaded cars running down the 
incline would haul up the empty cars on another 
track. The arrangement worked so well that it has 
been continued to the present time, and with the 
use of the steel cable instead of the rope, heavy 
loads are easily moved. 

The perfection of the tramway led the miners to 
seek for some motive power that would be stronger 
and swifter than horses. The steam engine had 
been brought to a good degree of perfection, and 
those interested in tramways naturally looked to it 
for such power as they desired. Stationary engines 
were first employed and moved the cars by means 
of ropes, one end of which was attached to the car 
and the other to a cylinder or drum. The car was 
hauled by winding the rope around the drum. Two 
objections to this device soon developed; it was ex¬ 
pensive, and it could be used only for moving cars 
very short distances. What was wanted was an 
engine that would move on the track with the cars, 
and attempts to supply this need led to the inven¬ 
tion of the steam locomotive. 

3 



Strange as it may seem, inventors attempted to 
move wagons over a common road by steam power 
some time before they attempted to use engines in 
moving cars upon the railway. The steam wagon, 
then, was the forerunner of the locomotive. The 
first steam carriage of which we have any record 
was invented by a Frenchman named Cugnot, in 
1769 and 1770, and a strange looking affair it was, 
you may be sure. 

In 1804, Oliver Evans, of Philadelphia, built a flat 
bottomed boat to use in dredging out the Philadel¬ 
phia docks. When the boat was completed, he 
mounted it on wheels and drove it by its own engine 
to the river banks; then used the engine to turn pad¬ 
dle wheels and move the boat to its destination. 
Evans named this strange combination the Oructor 
Amphibolos. It was the first road locomotive known 
in America. The following year, Evans obtained a 
patent for a steam wagon, but we do not know that 
he ever made any practical use of his invention. 
Other inventions followed. Several successful steam 
wagons were placed in operation in England, and 
made regular trips for a number of years before the 
locomotive came into use on railways. It will be seen 
that these steam wagons were the forerunners of 
the automobile as well as the locomotive. 

The first railroad locomotive was invented by 
James Trevithick, a Cornish mechanic, in 1802. It 
had a fly wheel on the crank and the draft was 
secured by means of a bellows. Trevithick’s in¬ 
vention was not a commercial success, but his plan 
was improved upon by another mechanic, who sue- 
4 


ceeded in building an engine that would run ten 
miles an hour. 

In 1812, one John Stevens of Hoboken, New Jer- 
sey, published a pamphlet in which he predicted that 
trains of carriages would be drawn on railways at 
a speed of twenty or thirty miles an hour, and that 
the speed might possibly be increased to forty or 
fifty miles an hour. Stevens was certainly a prophet, 
for at the time his pamphlet was issued there was 
not a successful locomotive in existence. 

The first successful locomotive was constructed 
by George Stephenson, an English engineer, but iiis 
success was reached only after several years spent 
in experimenting. In 1829, in competition for a 
prize offered by the directors of the Stockton and 
Darlington Railroad, for a locomotive which would 
best meet their requirements, Stephenson built the 
‘ 4 Rocket,’’ which was the first successful locomotive. 
This engine weighed only four and one-half tons, 
but -it was able to travel from sixteen to twenty 
miles an hour and haul a heavy load. The construc¬ 
tion of the Rocket may be said to mark the begin¬ 
ning of a new era in transportation. From that 
time the success of the Steam railway was assured. 

Railroads connecting most of the important cities 
in England were soon constructed, and France, Ger¬ 
many and other countries on the continent of Europe 
followed England’s example. Originally intended 
for hauling freight, these roads soon extended their 
service to carrying passengers, and thus, in a few 
years, between 1830 and 1840, was laid the founda¬ 
tion of the great railway systems of Europe. 

5 


RAILWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES 


The first railroad in the United States was built 
from the granite quarries in Quincy, Massachusetts, 
to the Coast, in 1826. Its first use was for trans¬ 
porting the stones for the Bunker Hill Monument, 
so that noble structure commemorates, not only a 
celebrated battle in the Eevolutionary War, but 
also the introduction into the country of a means of 
transportation which has exerted a far-reaching in¬ 
fluence upon all phases of American life. This road 
was only four miles long. The ties were of stone, 
and upon them wooden rails were placed, and upon 
these wrought iron plates were fastened. The cars 
were hauled by horses. This little road is of special 
interest in the history of American Railways, both 
because it was the first railroad built in the United 
States, and because upon it were used the first 
switch and the first turntable in the world. These 
devices were invented by Mr. Gridley Bryant, the 
projector of the road. Bryant also constructed the 
first eight-wheeled car ever used. 

The next year a second road was built. This led 
from the coal mines of Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, 
to the Lehigh River, and, including sidings, or turn¬ 
outs as they were then called, was thirteen miles 
long. The same year the Delaware and Hudson 
River Canal Company commenced a road leading 
from their mines in Honesdale to the terminus of 
their canal. Three locomotives and the rails for 
this road were purchased in England, and one of 
these locomotives reached New York in 1829. This 
6 - 




engine, named the “Stourbridge Lion,” was the 
first steam locomotive used in America. 

The first charter for a railroad in the United 
States was granted by the legislature of Maryland 
for the Baltimore and Ohio Bailroad, in 1827. The 
road was begun on the fourth of July of the next 
year, and was extended along the valley of the 
Patapsco River to Ellicott’s Mills, a distance of thir¬ 
teen miles. It is 
i n t e r e s ting to 
know that the first 
rail upon this 
road was laid by 
Charles Carroll, 
the last survivor 
of the signers of 
the Declaration of 
I n d e p e n dence. 
From this begin- 
ningthegreat Bal¬ 
timore and Ohio Railway System has been developed. 
When the road was begun no one dreamed of using 
steam as a motive power, and all cars were hauled 
by horses. Since the charter allowed the company to 
do a general transportation business, they carried 
both passengers and freight. The first passenger 
cars were indeed primitive affairs, as the illustration 
shows. They were simply the most common sort of 
a covered wagon. 

The first locomotives built in England were for 
straight tracks, and since curves were found neces¬ 
sary in constructing American railroads, these loco- 
, 7 



THE FIRST RAILWAY PASSENGER CAR 













motives were not well suited to American conditions. 
In 1830, Peter Cooper built a locomotive adapted to 
curved roads. Tlie boiler was upright, and no larger 
than the ordinary boiler now attached to a kitchen 
range, but with this little engine which did not weigh 
over a ton, Cooper hauled an open car filled with 

directors of the road 
from Baltimore to 
Ellicott’s Mills, at a 
speed of eighteen 
miles an hour. This 
was the first rail¬ 
road locomotive 
built in the United 
States, and also the 
first one used for 
carrying passen¬ 
gers. In 1829, oper¬ 
ations were begun on a road connecting Charleston, 
South Carolina, with Savannah. Upon this road 
locomotives were used from the beginning, and their 
use led to the construction of the first locomotives 
having the four wheel truck or “bogie,” now in 
general use on locomotives and cars throughout the 
United States. 

This engine was the original pattern from which 
the American locomotive has been developed. The 
early passenger coaches were merely stage coaches 
mounted on wheels that would run on rails, and the 
first passenger trains were made up of the engine 
and a number of these coaches joined together, as 
shown in the accompanying illustration. Such was 
8 


PETER COOPER’S LOCOMOTIVE 


















the first passenger train in the United States. On 
these early trains there were no conductors. The 
engineer collected the fare, and the fireman handled 
the baggage and freight. . # 

The charters of other roads followed rapidly, and 
in the next twenty years numerous pioneer lines 
were constructed. Between 1830 and 1835, about 
eight hundred miles of railroad were built in the 
United States, and the construction was active from 
that time up to the breaking out of the Civil War. 
Some of the important lines begun or completed, 
were the New York Central, the Boston and Albany, 
the Pennsylvania, the Michigan Central and the 
Michigan Southern. In 1854, the Chicago and Rock 
Island road was built between Chicago and the Mis¬ 
sissippi River, and in the following year the Chicago 
and Galena Line, the beginning of the Northwestern 
System, was completed. This period also included 
the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, the Illinois 
Central and the Chicago and Alton, besides a num¬ 
ber of other roads of less importance. In 1861, there 
were about 30,000 miles of railroads in the United 
States, but during the Civil War, railroad construc¬ 
tion was practically suspended. However, at that 
time the United States contained about half of the 
railway mileage of the world. 

In the construction of these early roads, little atten¬ 
tion was paid to uniformity in gauge or the distance 
between the rails, some of the roads using one meas¬ 
urement, and some another; but in time it was found 
that this variation led to many difficulties in con¬ 
structing locomotives and cars, and gradually Amer- 
9 


ican roads came to adopt the standard gauge of four 
feet eight and one-half inches, which is the gauge 
first adopted by the English railways. In moun¬ 
tainous regions where high grades are necessary, 
a narrower gauge is sometimes used, hut narrow- 
gauge roads are not common. At first all lines were 
short, and no attempt was made by the owners of 
one line to accommodate the patrons of another, 
even when the two lines ran into the same town, 
and such an accommodation would have been to the 
advantage of both; but the‘union of these lines and 
the formation of the great railway systems of today 
is a story by itself. 

UNION OF AMERICAN RAILWAYS 

The American railway system of today is the won¬ 
der and admiration of the world, but like some of 
the modern cities in Greece and Italy, it has been 
built upon the ruins of what preceded it. The con¬ 
struction of a railroad calls for a large investment 
of money, and after the line is built, it may be some 
months or even years before the income is sufficient 
to pay operating expenses, to say nothing of interest; 
upon the capital invested. In the early history of! 
the railway movement in the United States, com¬ 
paratively few men understood the financial phase 
of the problem, and only an occasional line paid divi¬ 
dends on its stock. Many lines were practically 
bankrupt before the construction was completed. 
Moreover, the early railroad was to the people what 
a new toy is to a child. All communities wanted 
one, and the strife of towns, counties and states to 
10 


secure railroads was often carried on with more zeal 
than discretion. People of all classes and conditions 
subscribed for the stock, regardless of their financial 
ability. Of course, many of these investors could ill 
afford to do without the income of their investments, 
much less could they make further investments to 
pay running expenses, and the managers occasion¬ 
ally found it difficult to obtain money for operating 
the roads. It is reported upon good authority that 
at one time the sheriff seized all the furniture in 
the offices of the Michigan Southern Railroad in New 
York, and that the directors had to borrow chairs 
from neighboring offices in which to sit while hold¬ 
ing a meeting. Today, this road is second to none 
in its financial standing and its equipment. 

But perhaps what is worse than all this, is the fact 
that then as now, unscrupulous men seized upon pro¬ 
motion schemes for railways as a means of swindling 
people, and in some instances sold large blocks of 
stock for which they received money and then dis¬ 
appeared with their ill gotten gains. Finally, the 
present method of financing a railroad by borrowing 
money on bonds or mortgages secured by the prop¬ 
erty was worked out. This left enough money from 
the sale of the stock to provide equipment and usu¬ 
ally to pay operating, expenses until the road had 
developed a traffic along its line. The employment 
of this method of finance has made our present rail¬ 
road systems possible. 

The difficulties attending the operation of some of 
these old lines are almost beyond our comprehen¬ 
sion and the methods employed seem so far out of 
11 


date that we are liable to think of them as belonging 
to another age. In 1844, a Kentucky road used rails 
of grooved stone faced with strap iron. The Penn¬ 
sylvania Road, which today with its magnificent sys¬ 
tem is the model of the world, was at first operated 
in what to us seems a very laughable manner. Some 
years ago, a history of this road was published, and 
we are indebted to that work for the following inci¬ 
dents. 

The first line was constructed in 1834 by the state, 
for the purpose of connecting Philadelphia with a 
canal which extended along the Susquehanna and 
Juniata rivers. Just west of Philadelphia, an in¬ 
clined plane 2840 feet long was constructed, to reach 
the summit of a range of hills 187 feet high. At the 
other end of the line, another incline lowered the 
cars to the canal. The cars were hauled over these 
inclines by stationary engines, but when they reached 
the summit, they could be hauled by horses or loco¬ 
motives. Since the road was built at the expense of 
the state, it was free for the citizens and could be 
used like an ordinary highway. Anyone could place 
his wagon on the track and haul it with his own 
team. 

After the legislature authorized the use of 
engines and cars on this line, the traffic was carried 
on by wagons hauled by horses or mules, and by 
trains hauled by locomotives. Since it was not pos¬ 
sible for these conveyances to pass each other, none 
could proceed faster than the conveyance at the head 
of the procession; and whenever a driver stopped 
to water or feed his team, as frequently occurred, 
12 


the indignation and language of the passengers in 
the cars hauled by , locomotives can better be imag¬ 
ined than described. The confusion and dissatisfac¬ 
tion arising from such an arrangement caused the 
canal commissioners to take action, and they tried to 
remove all difficulties by restricting the passage of 
trains hauled by locomotives to certain hours of the 
day, granting the other hours to teams. Under this 
primitive arrangement, horses and wagons were 
allowed on this road until 1844. 

The completion of the second track, in 1835, en¬ 
abled the road to run trains in both directions with¬ 
out interference. Awkward as the method of oper¬ 
ating may appear today, the construction of this 
line over the mountains was an important event in 
the history of transportation in the United States. 
What this and other lines meant to the people of 
that day, is illustrated by a single instance: before 
this section of the Pennsylvania Road was open to 
traffic, the cost of transporting a ton of goods from 
Blairsville to Hollidaysburg, a distance of fifty-three 
miles, was from twelve to sixteen dollars. On the 
completion of the road, the charge was reduced to 
four dollars. 

Another illustration of growth from small begin¬ 
nings is found in the New York Central lines, which 
began with a road seventeen miles long, and now 
operates 8000 miles of railway extending through 
the richest and most densely populated sections of 
the country, it being estimated by good authority 
that the section covered by this system contains one- 
half of the population of the United States. The 
13 


present New York Central System, like the Penn¬ 
sylvania and other large systems, has been formed 
by extending the original lines and by the purchase 
of others whose traffic was closely related to the 
traffic of the main lines. Before the lines which form 
the New York Central and Hudson River Railways 
were united, one had to travel over six lines of rail¬ 
way in going from New York to Buffalo. This meant 
that he had to change cars six times, buy six tickets, 
and have his baggage checked at each transfer. An¬ 
noying as this arrangement was, the passenger could 
make the journey and survive, but when it came to 
handling freight over six times, the expense of trans¬ 
portation was so great that the railroads afforded 
but little relief to their patrons. The leading men 
owning the various railroads soon saw the imprac¬ 
ticability of such an arrangement, and took measures 
to form a traffic arrangement by which each line 
agreed to haul the cars of the other. This agree¬ 
ment was the first step toward consolidation of the 
short lines into one continuous system which formed 
the original New York Central and Hudson River 
Railroad, extending from New York to Albany, and 
thence westward across the Empire state to Buffalo. 
In a similar manner other lines became united, and 
before 1870 most of the great trunk lines east of the 
Mississippi had been formed. It remained, however, 
for these trunk lines to be merged into great systems. 

AMERICAN RAILWAY SYSTEMS 

Since 1870 the growth of railroads in the United 
States has been characterized by movements along 
14 



three lines: construction of roads from Mississippi 
River points to the Pacific Coast, merging competing 
lines into great systems, and improving road beds, 
cars, locomotives and other property. 

The Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads, 
combined to form the first so-called Trans-Conti¬ 
nental line, were completed in 1869. This event marks 
such an important epoch in the industrial history of 
our country that the construction of this line of rail¬ 
way is worthy of special notice. As early as 1853, 
Congress made an appropriation for the survey of 
a route for a railroad extending across the plains 
to the Pacific Coast, hut the rivalry between the 
northern and the southern states over the location 
of the line, made it impossible to secure further leg¬ 
islation until after the outbreak of the Civil War. 
With the beginning of that struggle, the Southern 
element was eliminated from the problem, and Con¬ 
gress could be united on a plan. Moreover, the dif¬ 
ficulties of reaching certain points beyond the Mis¬ 
sissippi, the hostility of Indian tribes, which was in¬ 
creased during the war, and the difficulty of com¬ 
municating with California, all combined to empha¬ 
size the importance to the Government of such a line 
of railway. Consequently, in 1863, legislation was 
secured authorizing the construction of the Union 
Pacific and Central Pacific Railways, and work was 
begun on both lines the following year. 

This was not only the first trans-continental line 
of railway, but it was also the first enterprise of this 
sort to which the national Government lent its aid. 
The Government did not build the road directly, but 
15 


it granted to the companies authorized to construct 
it, alternate sections of land along the line, extend¬ 
ing back from the railway for twenty miles on each 
side of the road. The total grant was about 66,000,- 
000 acres, and equivalent to a strip of land twenty 
miles wide from Omaha, Nebraska, to San Francisco. 
The Government further guaranteed the bonds of 
the road to the amount of $16,000 per mile. The 
companies sold these bonds and in that way obtained 
the money for construction purposes. The land was 
held until the lines were completed, and from that 
time until it was all disposed of, it was sold to set¬ 
tlers. 

We can scarcely realize the difficulties under 
which the companies labored in building this rail¬ 
way. No railroad had been built from Chicago 
across Iowa, and the Union Pacific had to depend 
for its supply of ties and other timber, upon the 
mountain forests, and the timber was floated down 
the streams. The Central Pacific was in an even 
more unfortunate condition, for all of its supplies 
which could not be manufactured in California had 
to be carried by boat around Cape Horn, and at this 
time all American vessels were subject to attack 
from the Confederate privateers, so that to the long 
distance was added the danger of capture and con¬ 
fiscation by the enemy. Again, the Indians were not 
at all friendly to this new and, to them, peculiar in¬ 
vasion of their domain, and the construction gangs 
were of necessity under the protection of military 
escorts from the beginning of the line until its com¬ 
pletion. Nevertheless, after the work was begun, it 


was pushed forward rapidly. The granting of land 
to the two companies served as a stimulus, and each 
tried to outstrip the other, because the amount of 
land obtained depended upon the number of miles of 
road constructed. During the latter days of the 
work the Union Pacific construction force laid from 
five to eight miles of track per day, until on May 
10th, 1869, the workmen of the two companies met 
at Promontory, near Ogden, Utah. 

The last tie and rails were laid with elaborate 
ceremony. Montana, Idaho and Nevada presented 
spikes of silver and gold, and the last spike was of 
California gold. The engine from the Pacific faced 
that from the Atlantic, and Leland Stanford, then 
governor of California and founder of Leland Stan¬ 
ford Junior University, together with the Vice- 
President, Durant, drove the spike. Such was the 
interest in the completion of the line that the press 
throughout the country made elaborate prepara¬ 
tions for reporting the ceremonies, and each move¬ 
ment was telegraphed from the seat of action as it 
occurred. The point of junction is 1086 miles west 
of the Missouri river, and 690 miles east of Sacra¬ 
mento. Not only was the event celebrated at the 
point where the lines met, but also in all the lead¬ 
ing cities of the country. 

With the completion of the Union Pacific line rail¬ 
way communication between the Atlantic and the 
Pacific Coasts was consummated. In 1876 traffic 
over this line had been brought to such a degree of 
perfection that trains from New York reached San 
Francisco in eighty-three hours and twenty minutes. 

17 


California was, by the construction of this line, 
brought into closer touch with the other states, and 
the knowledge of her wonderful resources, which 
was soon spread over the country, led to increased 
immigration to that state. On the completion of 
the work, Governor Stanford predicted that within 
a few years three tracks would be necessary to ac¬ 
commodate the traffic. He little realized the num¬ 
ber of competing lines which would follow within 
the next half-century. After the war, the Southern 
interests were cared for by the Southern Pacific, ex¬ 
tending through Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, 
and later merging with the Union Pacific and form¬ 
ing with that the great Southern Pacific system. 
The Northern Pacific was completed in 1888, and 
the Great Northern in 1893, and was built without 
government aid. After that, extension of lines to 
the coast ceased for a* number of years. Then other 
roads began extending their lines westward, the Chi¬ 
cago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul System complet¬ 
ing theirs in 1909. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa 
Fe, extending from Chicago to Los Angeles, is also 
considered a trans-continental line, although it has 
to make its connection with San Francisco over the 
Southern Pacific tracks. The Chicago, Rock Island 
and Pacific is another line of similar nature. Doubt¬ 
less both of these in time will have their own tracks 
to San Francisco and other Pacific coast points. 

But this is not all. Notwithstanding the numer¬ 
ous trans-continental lines in the United States, the 
Dominion of Canada has the Canadian Pacific which 
has been in successful operation almost since the 
18 


formation of the Dominion, and it now has pro¬ 
jected to Pacific coast points, the Grand-Trunk Pa¬ 
cific and the Canadian Northern lines, both of which 
are under construction and will reach their western 
terminals within a short time. 

For a number of years there was not enough 
business for these various trans-continental lines to 
enable them to pay expenses. When they were first 
constructed, only a narrow strip of territory along 
the Pacific coast had been settled, and this only 
sparsely. Between that strip of coast land and the 
western boundaries of Iowa, Minnesota and Kansas, 
there was a vast stretch of unoccupied country from 
which no revenue could be obtained. Each line 
naturally strove to secure all the traffic it could, 
and rates were often lowered beyond the point 
where even a good traffic would enable the line to 
pay expenses. Two good illustrations of competing 
lines are to be found in the Union Pacific and South¬ 
ern Pacific, and in the Northern Pacific and Great 
Northern. All trans-continental lines are dependent 
upon through traffic, that is, traffic to and from the 
coast to points east of the Mississippi River, for an 
important portion of their revenue, and when lines 
located near each other were in close competition, 
one line might become overloaded while another 
would have scarcely any through business. This 
was unsatisfactory alike to the roads and to the 
shippers. Moreover, rates so low that they do not 
allow a margin of profit are usually accompanied 
by poor service, and what the shipper saves in 
freight he is liable to lose through delays. When 


all lines running through the same part of the coun¬ 
try are under one management, these conditions 
can be avoided, and the assurance of a constant rev¬ 
enue by so dividing the transportation among the 
various lines of the system as to keep all employed, 
enables the roads to render more efficient service at 
a lower rate than is otherwise possible. Therefore, 
consolidation benefits both the roads and the public. 

But this is not all. With a change of business 
conditions, a change of methods becomes necessary. 
The purpose of the first railroads was merely to 
serve local needs, but with the settlement of the 
country west of the Appalachian mountains, the de¬ 
mands upon the roads were far greater than was 
originally expected, and as we have seen, short lines 
were joined to form trunk lines. With the growth 
of the country still greater demands were made 
upon the roads, and the merging of trunk lines into 
systems became necessary. Concerning the develop¬ 
ment of this movement, Mr. James J. Hill, one of 
the greatest masters of transportation the country 
has ever known, says: 

“Exactly as society and the work of the com¬ 
munity have become more complex, so have the 
means by which material ends are achieved grown 
larger and more powerful. The union of numerous 
disconnected and weak railroads in one orderly and 
efficient system, the substitution of one great estab¬ 
lishment for many small plants, are part of the 
natural and inevitable evolution of united action 
among men. With the settlement of the West, and 
especially with the growth of through traffic, a new 
20 


condition arose. The difficulty of sending com¬ 
modities over half a dozen lines, operated by as 
many companies, in one quick and continuous jour¬ 
ney became too great for business to bear. To 
handle the immense through railroad business of 
this country by a host of small and isolated lines 
would be just as impracticable as to carry on our 
commerce with forty-six different kinds of money.’’ 

Not only was the consolidation of the trunk lines 
west of the Mississippi found necessary, but such 
a movement in the older and more densely settled 
portion of the country seemed equally desirable, and 
by 1910 all the important railroads of the country 
had been grouped into great systems. The names 
of most of these systems are derived from the 
names of the leading capitalist concerned in their 
formation, while the names of a few are from the 
original lines to which the other lines in the system 
were joined. The leading systems and their respec¬ 
tive mileages are shown in the following table, which 
includes three-fourths of the railway mileage of the 
country: 


Groups Mileage 

Vanderbilt. 24,198 

Pennsylvania . 19,172 

Harriman. 28,112 

Hill-Morgan . 12,519 

Morgan. 12,618 

Gould. 20,983 

Moore. 27,912 

Rockefeller . 15,983 


21 










Groups Mileage 

Walters . 11,143 

Independent . 27,212 

Hawley .. 8,400 


Total ..208,252 


Tlie Vanderbilt group includes the New York Cen¬ 
tral, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, Michigan 
Central, Lake Erie and Western, The Big Four, The 
West Shore, The Nickel Plate, and a few other less 
important lines. The Pennsylvania System includes 
all the lines under the management of the Penn¬ 
sylvania Eailroad Corporation. The Harriman Sys¬ 
tem, named from the late Edward II. Harriman, 
includes the Union Pacific, Southern Pacific, Ore¬ 
gon Eailroad and Navigation Company, Oregon 
Short Line, San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake 
Eailway and a few other minor lines. This system 
has a very close traffic affiliation with the Chicago 
, and Northwestern System. The Hill-Morgan and 
Morgan Systems include the Great Northern, the 
Northern Pacific and the Burlington Systems, with 
a few allied lines of less importance. The Gould 
lines embrace the Wabash, the Denver and Eio 
Grande, the Missouri Pacific, the. St. Louis and 
Southwestern and the Texas Pacific. Moore’s Sys¬ 
tem includes the Chicago, Bock Island and Pacific 
Eailway and its allied lines. Chief among the in- 
’ dependent systems are the Atchison, Topeka and 
Santa Fe, the Chicago, Milwaukee and Saint Paul, 
the Chicago and Northwestern, the Southern Bail- 
22 







way, Atlantic Coast Line Railway and the Balti¬ 
more and Ohio. 

If one desires to become familiar with the loca¬ 
tions of these great railway systems and their 
allied lines, one needs to study carefully a railway 
map of the United States. Such a study will show 
that each of the great systems practically controls 
the transportation in the section of the country 
through which it extends. In connection with this, 
it may be interesting to know the railroad mileage 
of the world as distributed by continents. The fol¬ 
lowing table shows the approximate mileage and 
distribution of the railroads of the world from the 
latest date at which authentic data were available; 


Continents 

Mileage 

North America. 

.330,000 

Europe . 

.245,000 

Asia . 

. 60,000 

South America. 

. 60,000 

Africa. 

. 25,000 

Australia. 

.:. 30,000 

Total . 

.750,000 

The total mileage in 
275,000. 

the United States is about 

RAILWAY 

CONSTRUCTION 

Having learned something of the original rail¬ 
roads, and seen how the early lines have been united 
first to form trunk lines and then great systems in 
order that they might meet the increasing demands 


23 










constantly placed upon them, let us now look at the 
problems of construction which confront a company 
organized for building a line of road. The three 
great questions that must be settled before the work 
of construction can begin, are, the location of the 
line, the expense of grading and the traffic which 
may he secured from the adjoining country. The 
last item is a very important factor in determining 
the location of the road, and sometimes the line be¬ 
tween two important points does not follow the 
shortest distance joining these points, because, by 
taking a more circuitous route, a larger volume of 
traffic can be secured. 

While in general the policy determined upon is 
to locate the road through the country so that the 
cost of construction will be the least possible, yet 
it is sometimes good business to incur greater 
expense when, by so doing, important trade centers 
can be reached. When the route is decided upon, 
two surveys are made; the first including a strip 
of country from two hundred to a thousand feet 
wide, within which the line is to be located; the 
second for the purpose of definitely locating the 
road. Each survey is accompanied by a map, 
which is made as the -work progresses from 
day to day. Two maps are made in connection 
with the final survey; the first showing the position 
of the line within the strip of country included in 
the first survey, and the second, known as the pro¬ 
file, showing the undulations of the ground surface 
and the cuts and fills that will have to be made in 
grading the road. The engineer usually tries to 
24 


have the cuts and fills equal, so that the earth 
excavated from the cuts will be sufficient for the 
fills. This saves hauling the sand or gravel from 
long distances, and consequently considerable ex¬ 
pense in grading the road. 

After the location of the line is determined, the 
land, or right-of-way, as it is called, on which the 
road is to be built must be secured. This is usually 
a strip about one hundred feet in width, with addi¬ 
tional ground for stations, shops and yards wher¬ 
ever these are required. Land is obtained by pur¬ 
chase, and in case the railroad company and the 
owner can not agree as to price, the company has 
the right to refer the matter to a court, and the 
owner is obliged to accept the price the court 
awards. This process is known as condemning land 
for public purposes, and the company is allowed to 
use this means because the road is a public institu¬ 
tion, and must serve all who apply to it for trans¬ 
portation. 

When these preliminary matters have been com¬ 
pleted, the company is ready to begin the actual 
construction of the road bed. In most cases this 
work is done under contract, and is in charge of 
the engineer of the road and his assistants. It is 
the duty of the enginer to see that the contractor 
fulfills all specifications, and to see that the work 
is well done. As a general thing, the road bed for 
a single track is from fourteen to eighteen feet wide 
at the top, and from twenty to twenty-six feet wide 
at the base of the embankment, unless the embank¬ 
ment is very high, in which case a greater width is 
25 


necessary. In the construction of the road, pro¬ 
vision must be made for ditches in the cuts, so that 
the water will readily drain off, and for culverts 
wherever such will be necessary to drain the land 
upon either side of the road. Since these are per¬ 
manent structures,, it is necessary that the work 
upon them be done with the greatest of care, so 
that they will not need repair for many years. 

When the road bed has been graded, the cross 
1 ies or timbers to which the' rails are to be fastened, 
are laid upon it. These ties are of wood which is 
not easily rotted by exposure, such as oak, Southern 
pine, chestnut, cedar and red wood, the railway 
using the variety which can be most easily and 
cheaply obtained along the line. It is now custom¬ 
ary to treat these ties with preservative before 
placing them in position. When so treated, they 
will last from seven to eight years. The rails are 
fastened to the ties by long spikes which have heads 
constructed especially for holding the rails in place. 

When the track is laid upon this new road bed, it 
is very rough and uneven, and trains can be run 
over it only at a low rate of speed and with more 
than ordinary precaution. The next process con¬ 
sists in ballasting; that is, in tilling the spaces 
between the ties with sand, gravel, earth or rock 
and leveling the ties so as to make an even and 
smooth track. During the process of ballasting, the 
sand or gravel is driven in around the ties so firmly 
that they are immovable, and the track is put in a 
finished condition. This includes raising the outer 
rail wherever there are curves, so that the trains 
26 


will pass around tlie curves easily and without 
danger of being thrown from the rails by the force 
attendant upon running at a high rate of speed. 

The rails are made of steel, and those now in use 
are the result of many years of study and experi¬ 
ment by the most eminent railway engineers. They 
vary in length on different roads and in different 
sections of the same road. Many are thirty-three 
feet long, some forty-five, and occasionally rails 
sixty feet in length are found. In weight they vary 
from sixty to eighty pounds per yard. The rails 
are fastened together where they meet, bv laying 
the ends on a plate of metal which rests upon the 
ties, and joining them by strips of metal known as 
tie plates, which are placed upon each side of the 
rail, and through which, together with the rail, bolts 
are passed and fastened with burs. On. curves 
special rail braces are used in fastening the outer 
rail in position. This is for the purpose of 
strengthening it against the pressure of the wheels. 

At stations, and occasionally at points between 
stations, on single track lines, side tracks or sidings 
must be provided for the purpose of enabling trains 
going in opposite directions to pass each other, and 
in addition to these side tracks storage tracks are 
necessary. These are laid in railroad yards at the 
most convenient points, generally at the end of each 
division of the road. Some of these yards are very 
extensive and contain many tracks. Their design 
and construction are subjects of a great deal of 
care and effort. In general, the surface should be 
perfectly level so that cars may be moved over the 
27 


tracks with the least amount of power. A com¬ 
plete yard contains two distinct sets of tracks, one 
for freight in each direction. Each set will have 
its storage tracks for incoming freight, its tracks 
for classifying freight, on which the mixed freight 
of an incoming train is sorted, and its outgoing 
storage tracks on which trains are made up for 
forwarding to their destinations. The main lines 
of track should pass at one side of the yard so that 
through trains will not he hindered by the switching 
of cars on side tracks. 

Cars are transferred from one track to another 
by means of switches, which consist of two movable 
rails called switch rails, and so fastened together by 
iron bars that they can be moved at one end in such 
a manner as to turn the train from one track to the 
other. In connection with these switches are tri¬ 
angular rail structures called frogs, which also 
assist in guiding the train onto the desired track. 
The switches are operated by levers. 

In addition to the main line side tracks, passenger 
and freight depots and water stations have to be 
provided at such points as are most convenient for 
the traffic and operation of the road. Most water 
stations along the road consist of wooden tanks 
holding about fifty thousand gallons each, and 
mounted upon a platform of sufficient height to 
place the bottom of the tank a few feet above the 
top of the tender of the engine with which it may be 
connected by a movable pipe. In cities, water is 
often provided by attaching the crane or pipe to the 
city water supply. On a few roads which run fast 
28 


passenger trains, the main tracks are provided with 
wliat are known as track tanks. These consist of: 
a steel trough about a quarter of a mile in length; 
laid in the center of the track and kept filled with 
water by a nearby pumping station. The engine 
tender is provided with a scoop which is lowered on 
approaching the tank, and through it the water is 
forced into the tank.on the locomotive by the motion 
of the train. Since these tanks are very expensive, 
but few of them are found in the country. Those 
best known are connected with the main lines of the 
New York Central and Hudson River Railroad and 
the Pennsylvania road. 

In addition to these ordinary expenses in the 
construction of a railroad, nearly all lines have to 
incur extraordinary expense at certain points... 
Expense of operation- is an important item to be 
considered in constructing a railroad, and it often 
pays to expend large sums of money to reduce - 
grades, remove curves and shorten distances' 
between important points because in so doing the 
operating expenses are reduced and the carrying 
capacity of the road increased so that a greater 
profit can be secured than would be possible if 
these obstacles remained. Rivers, mountains and 
marshes are some of the most difficult obstacles 
encountered in reducing the expense of operation, 
and overcoming them has led to some of the greatest 
feats of engineering which the world has known. 

Small streams can be bridged without difficulty, 
but such rivers as the Ohio, the Mississippi, the 
Missouri and the St. Lawrence call for bridges 
29 


which, cost millions of dollars and require the skill 
of the best engineers the country affords. The 
great railroad bridges of this and other lands have 
always attracted the admiration of the world. 
Some of the most noted bridges of foreign countries 
are, the New Tay bridge in Scotland, about two and 
a quarter miles in length, the Forth bridge, Scot¬ 
land, nearly one and three-quarters miles in length, 
the Rapperschwyl bridge at Lake Zurich, Switzer¬ 
land, some over a mile in length, and the bridge 
across the Zambesi, where the Cape-to-Cairo Rail¬ 
way crosses the river just below the celebrated Vic¬ 
toria Falls. This bridge is not noted for its great 
length, but its height is some over four hundred feet, 
making it one of the highest structures of the kind 
in the world. 

One of the most celebrated long bridges con¬ 
structed in North America is the Victoria bridge 
across the St. Lawrence river at Montreal, built in 
1860. This bridge is a mile and a quarter in length, 
and supported on twenty-five piers. The first bridge 
was a rectangular tube, and spanned the river in 
the form of an arch, being some twenty-five feet 
higher at the center than at each end. It was built 
at an expense of nearly $7,000,000, and at the time 
was the most remarkable bridge in the world. 
After being in constant use for over forty years, it 
was replaced by a steel truss bridge of modern pat¬ 
tern. The bridge of the Illinois Central Railroad 
at Cairo, Illinois, is two miles in length, and is also 
one of the‘most remarkable structures of its kind 
in America. Other bridges of special note because 
• 30 


of their style and structure are the Eads bridge 
across the Mississippi at St. Louis, the great bridge 
across the Ohio at Cincinnati; the cantilever bridge 
at Niagara Falls, and the bridge across the Missis¬ 
sippi River at Thebes, Illinois. 

Another bridge around which a great deal of in¬ 
terest always centered was the old suspension -bridge 
at Niagara Falls, built in 1854. This bridge was a 
double decked structure, having two railway tracks 
on top and a carriage road underneath. It was 
suspended and supported entirely by wire cables, 
and remained in position for over forty years, when 
it was replaced by the present steel-arch structure. 

Great tunnels have always been important in re¬ 
ducing the grades and straightening the distances 
between points. Many railway tunnels have been 
constructed in the United States, but most of them 
are short and of little interest. The most noted of 
the European tunnels are those which have been 
constructed to remove the barrier formed by the 
Alps. The completion of these great works of engi¬ 
neering in the Alps has practically removed that 
mountain barrier so far as railway communication 
between northern and central Europe and the coun¬ 
tries south of the Alps is concerned. 

Tunnels are constructed only when no other device 
of less expense will take their place, and in running 
a line of railroad through mountainous regions such 
as are encountered by all trans-continental lines of 
the country, various devices have been employed to 
reduce the grade to its lowest minimum and accom¬ 
plish this at the least expense. Curves are fre- 
31 


qiiently used so that the road may form a loop or 
series of loops in order to overcome the grade. The 
most celebrated of the loops known to railroad engi¬ 
neering are found in the Marshall Pass of the Den¬ 
ver and Rio Grande Railway, and the Hagerman 
Pass on the Colorado Midland Railway, where an 
altitude of 10,944 feet above the sea is reached. 

Advantage must also he taken of the gorges 
formed by streams and other mountain valleys, in 
running lines of railway through these regions. 
Some of the devices that engineers have resorted 
to show that these men are men of resource and 
ingenuity. One of the most famous of these passes 
is the Royal Gorge in Colorado, which is so narrow 
that in one part, in order to have room for the river 
and the road bed, the engineer was obliged to resort 
to the principle of the suspended truss, known as 
the Hanging Bridge. 

Another difficulty with which the engineers have 
to contend in mountain regions of northern latitude 
or in great altitudes is that of snow, which in winter 
fills the cuts and has to be removed before traffic 
can be resumed. On all lines in the mountain re¬ 
gions we find miles and miles of snow fences and 
snow sheds. These are rough wooden structures 
sufficient to protect the track from snow. While 
they are a necessity, the sheds are anything but 
pleasant to the traveler, because they shut out many 
attractive views, and also cause the train to be filled 
with dust and the odors of gases escaping from the 
locomotive. 


32 


The Little Classic Series 


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2832 Aunt Martha’* Corner Cupboard— 

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2808 How Little Cedric Became a 
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2835 The Little Brown Pitcher. 

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2836 The Little Brown Man. 

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2839 Drakestail and Choosing a King. 
2739 Daffydowndilly and the Golden 

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2816 The Story of a Beehive. 

2922 Miss Alcott’s Girls. 

2741 Two Brownie Parties. 

2841 The Story of King Corn. 

2817 Stories of ’76. 

2925 The Story of Coal. 

2805 Some of Our Birds. 

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2818 Arthur, The Hero King. 

2927 The Story of King Cotton. 

2806 King Arthur Stories. 


Fourth and Fifth Grades 

No. 

2928 The Story of Sugar. 

2919 The Story of Daniel Boone. 

2929 The Story of Lumber. 

2913 American Naval Heroes. 

2930 The Story of Iron. 

2834 Little Goody Two Shoes. 

2931 Night Before Christmas and Other 

Christmas Poems. 

2907 Our Pilgrim Forefathers. 

2932 The Story of Granite, Copper and 

Zinc. 

2901 The Story of Abraham Lincoln. 

2933 The Story of Marble and Slate. 

2920 The Story of Washington. 

2934 The Story of Fruit. 

2914 The Story of Benjamin Franklin. 

2935 Norse Heroes. 

2908 A Longfellow Booklet. 

2936 Norse Myths. 

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2937 Norse Legends. 

2902 The Norse Seamen and Christo¬ 

pher Columbus. 

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2909 Henry Hudson and Other Explor¬ 

ers. 

2916 Miss Alcott’s Boys. 

2910 Orioles, Bobolinks and other Birds. 
2923 Famous Poems of Famous Poets— 

For Fourth and Fifth Grades. 

2917 Grace Darling and Florence Night¬ 

ingale. 


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2911 

3020 

2923 

2939 
2905 

2940 

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2912 

2943 

3019 

2944 
3013 

2945 

3007 

3025 

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3014 

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3027 

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Fifth and Sixth Grades 

The Story of Gold and Silver. 

The Story of Jeanne (Joan)D’Arc. 
The Story of Our Flag. 

Famous Poems of Famous Poets— 
For Fourth and Fifth Grades. 
The Story of Oil. 

The Three Golden Apples. 
Longfellow’s Poems. 

The Story of Electricity. 

Rab and His Friends. 

William McKinley. 

The Great Stone Face. 

The Discovery of America. 

The Story of Paper, Pens, Pencils, 
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The Story of Steam. 

The Story of Printing. 

Father Marquette. 

The Story of Newspapers and 
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The Miraculous Pitcher. 

The Story of Robinhood. 

The Story of La Salle. 

Sixth and Seventh Grades 

The Story of Motors. 

Famous Poems of Famous Poets— 
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Rip Van Winkle and Author’s Ac¬ 
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The King of The Golden River. 
The Story of Glass. 

The Golden Fleece. 

The Meat-Packing Industry. 
Whittier’s Poems. 

Tennyson’s Poems. 

The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. 
Lamb’s Tales from Shakespeare— 
Part I. 

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3009 The Pied Piper of Hamlin and 

Other Poems. 

3011 The Song of Hiawatha—Abridged. 

3003 The Snow-I mage. 

3032 Primitive Travel and Transporta¬ 

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3022 The Courtship of Miles Standish. 

3033 The Story of Ships and Shipping. 
3024 Famous Poems of Famous Poets— 

For Seventh Grade. 

3034 Ocean Routes and Navigation. 

Seventh and Eighth Grades 

No. 

3035 American Railway Systems. 

3018 The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. 

3010 Evangeline. 

3036 Horatius at the Bridge, and Other 

Poe ms. 

3012 The Cotter’s Saturday Night and 

Other Poems. 

3037 Lowell’s Poems. 

3004 Thanatopsis and Other Poems. 

3006 The Deserted Village (Goldsmith) 

and Gray's Elegy. 

3038 Washington’s Farewell Address 

and Other Papers. 

3122 The Vision of Sir Launfal and 
Other Poems. 

3039 Prisoner of Chillon and Other 

Poe ms. 

3017 Snow-Bound and the Corn Song. 
3115 The Magna Charta. 

3040 Sir Roger De Coverley Papers. 

3041 Carrying the U. S. Mail. 

3108 Speeches by Lincoln. 

3005 Enoch Arden. 

3101 Sohrab and Rustum. 

3042 Navigating the Air—Electric Rail¬ 

ways. 

3107 Famous Poems of Famous Poets- 

Eighth Grade. 


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